The short version of single-use aliquot fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2025-10-25. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Regulatory status varies sharply by country. Semax is registered for medical use in Russia, where it appears in formularies as a nasal solution, and it also holds registration in a small number of neighbouring states. It has no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency, and it is not a scheduled controlled substance in most jurisdictions. Elsewhere it circulates mainly as laboratory material, so purity documentation comes from suppliers rather than from a national pharmacopoeia.
Semax is a synthetic peptide created in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by researchers working in Moscow. It was built from the short adrenocorticotropic hormone fragment known as ACTH(4-10), and the chain was then extended with three additional amino acids. The resulting molecule was named semax and entered clinical use in Russia in 1994. It is generally described as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent rather than as a hormone analogue.
The parent fragment ACTH(4-10) carries the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly. Semax replaces the arginine and tryptophan positions with a proline-glycine-proline tail, giving Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. That change removes residues associated with adrenal stimulation, so the peptide does not drive cortisol release the way full ACTH does. This distinction shapes how the compound is grouped in the literature, where it sits with neuropeptides and peptide neuromodulators rather than with corticosteroids.
Identity and purity are established with standard peptide methods. Reversed-phase HPLC with ultraviolet detection near 214 nm resolves the parent peak from deletion and truncation byproducts, and reports typically quote a main-peak percentage. Mass spectrometry by electrospray or MALDI-TOF confirms the expected molecular mass, while amino acid analysis or peptide mapping can verify composition when the sequence itself is in question. A certificate of analysis that pairs a chromatogram with a mass spectrum is more informative than a purity figure alone. Counter-ion content and residual solvents are separate specifications and are frequently omitted.
Semax is normally supplied as a lyophilized powder, and that form is the most stable. Suppliers commonly recommend storage at -20 °C in a desiccated container protected from light, with short-term handling at room temperature limited to weighing and transfer. Powder that has absorbed moisture degrades faster, so vials should be warmed to ambient temperature before opening to prevent condensation on the contents. Hygroscopic behavior is typical of short hydrophilic peptides, and humidity control matters more than temperature alone for long-term retention.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic heptapeptide | Analogue of the ACTH(4-10) fragment |
| Amino acid sequence | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | Single-letter form MEHFPGP |
| Molecular formula | C37H51N9O10S | Free peptide, nominal mass near 814 Da |
| First registration | 1994, Russia | Nasal formulation for neurological indications |
| Typical purity grade | 95% or higher by HPLC | Research material; higher grades used as reference standards |
Development of the compound took place in the Soviet Union during the 1980s, largely through peptide research groups affiliated with the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute and Moscow State University. Investigators screened fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone for activity on the central nervous system while attempting to separate cognitive effects from hormonal ones. The shortened sequence was selected because it retained behavioral activity in animal models without stimulating corticosteroid release. Early publications described the molecule as an ACTH(4-10) analog.
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
Proposed mechanisms center on neurotrophic signaling rather than on classical melanocortin receptor activation. Rodent experiments have reported shifts in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor after administration, together with changes in the associated receptor systems. Several authors argue that the peptide acts largely through its degradation products and their interaction with peptidergic pathways, but this remains a hypothesis rather than a settled finding. No single molecular target has been identified in a way that the field broadly accepts.
Published research covers ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, cognitive impairment, optic nerve conditions and attention-related measures. Much of the human evidence comes from small trials conducted in one country, which limits how far the results generalize. Animal models supply the larger share of the data, and effects seen in rodents do not transfer automatically to people. Reviews have noted that methodological reporting is often incomplete, making it difficult to pool results or compare treatment schedules across studies.
==== Basic Laboratory Cancer Centers ==== Basic Laboratory Cancer Centers conduct only laboratory research and do not provide patient treatment. Basic Laboratory Cancer Centers are more often affiliated with research institutes rather than universities. They are eligible to apply for up to $1.2 million per year.
Aprepitant, sold under the brand name Emend among others, is a medication used to prevent chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and to prevent postoperative nausea and vomiting. It may be used together with ondansetron and dexamethasone. It is taken by mouth or administered by intravenous injection. A prodrug, fosaprepitant, is also available for intravenous administration. Common side effects include tiredness, loss of appetite, diarrhea, abdominal pain, hiccups, itchiness, pneumonia, and blood pressure changes. Other severe side effects may include anaphylaxis. While use in pregnancy does not appear to be harmful, such use has not been well studied. Aprepitant belongs to the class of neurokinin-1 receptor antagonists. It works by blocking substance P from attaching to the NK1 receptors. Aprepitant was approved for medical use in the European Union and the United States in 2003. It is made by Merck & Co. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
Aminoglycoside antibiotics (gentamicin) Antiepileptics (such as carbamazepine, phenytoin and valproic acid) Mood stabilisers, especially lithium citrate Antipsychotics (such as pimozide and clozapine) Digoxin Ciclosporin, tacrolimus in organ transplant recipients TDM increasingly proposed for a number of therapeutic drugs, e.g. many antibiotics, small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors and other targeted anticancer agents, TNF inhibitors and other biological agents, antifungal agents, antiretroviral agents used in HIV infection, psychiatric drugs etc.
== Background == Scientists have debated whether umami was a basic taste since Kikunae Ikeda first proposed its existence in 1908. In 1985, the term umami was recognized as the scientific term to describe the taste of glutamates and nucleotides at the first Umami International Symposium in Hawaii. Umami represents the taste of the amino acid L-glutamate and 5'-ribonucleotides such as "inosinate and guanylate". (guanosine monophosphate, GMP, and inosine monophosphate, IMP). It can be described as a pleasant "brothy" or "meaty" taste with a long-lasting, mouthwatering, and coating sensation over the tongue. Umami enhances the palatability of a wide variety of foods. Studies in genetically engineered mice in which individual TAS1R genes have been deleted indicate that the TAS1R1/TAS1R3 complex is solely responsible for umami taste, whereas TAS1R2/TAS1R3 is solely responsible for sweet taste. As expected, a genetic knockout of TAS1R1 selectively abolishes umami taste, a knockout of TAS1R2 specifically abolishes sweet taste, while a knockout of TAS1R3 eliminates both sweet and umami taste. Specialized taste bud cells detect the chemical species perceived as umami by humans. Glutamate in acid form (glutamic acid) imparts little umami taste, whereas the salts of glutamic acid, known as glutamates, give the characteristic umami taste due to their ionized state. GMP and IMP amplify the taste intensity of glutamate. Adding salt to the free acids also enhances the umami taste.
=== Differential diagnosis === Several other disorders and diseases present themselves with symptoms like JIA. These causes include, but are not limited to, infectious (for example, septic arthritis or osteomyelitis) and post-infectious conditions (reactive arthritis, acute rheumatic fever, and in some geographic areas Lyme disease); hematologic and neoplastic diseases such as leukemia or bony tumors; and other connective tissue diseases (such as systemic lupus erythematosus). For the systemic-onset form of JIA, the differential diagnosis also includes Kawasaki disease and periodic fever syndromes. Some genetic skeletal dysplasias, such as forms of mucopolysaccharidosis, especially type 1 Scheie syndrome, progressive pseudo-rheumatoid dysplasia, and multicentric osteolysis, nodulosis, and arthropathy syndrome may also mimic JIA, as they may present with joint swelling, joint restriction, stiffness, and pain. The clinical and radiologic overlap between genetic skeletal dysplasias and JIA can be great that molecular analysis may be needed to confirm the diagnosis. Rarely, metabolic diseases, such as Farber disease, may also mimic JIA. Patients with Farber disease typically have subcutaneous nodules and a hoarse or weak voice due to laryngeal nodules.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
A brief or only mildly elevated heart rate (heart rate taken while sitting down after recently walking across the room or getting up on the examination table) might be assumed to be due to anxiety or illness rather than exercise-induced inappropriate rapid heart rate due to an ATP shortage in the muscle cells. In the absence of severe symptoms (such as hepatomegaly, cardiomyopathy, hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis, myoglobinuria, rhabdomyolysis, acute compartment syndrome or renal failure), it is understandable that a disease would not be noticed by medical professionals for years, when at rest the patient appears completely normal. Depending on what enzyme is affected, a high-protein or low-fat diet may be recommended along with mild exercise. It is important for people with metabolic myopathies to consult with their doctors for a treatment plan in order to prevent acute muscle breakdowns while exercising that lead to the release of muscle proteins into the bloodstream that can cause kidney damage. A ketogenic diet has a remarkable effect on CNS-symptoms in PDH-deficiency and has also been tried in complex I deficiency. A ketogenic diet has demonstrated beneficial for McArdle disease (GSD-V) as ketones readily convert to acetyl CoA for oxidative phosphorylation, whereas free fatty acids take a few minutes to convert into acetyl CoA. As of 2022, another study on a ketogenic diet and McArdle disease (GSD-V) is underway.
The Rhodesian Minister for Justice and Law and Order, Desmond Lardner-Burke, presented the rest of the Cabinet with a draft for the declaration of independence on 5 November 1965. When Jack Howman, Minister of Tourism and Information, said that he was also preparing a draft, the Cabinet decided to wait to see his version too. The ministers agreed that if an independence proclamation were issued, they would all sign it. On 9 November, the Cabinet jointly devised an outline for the proclamation document and the accompanying statement to be made by Smith. The final version of the declaration of independence was prepared by a sub-committee of civil servants headed by Gerald Clarke, the Cabinet Secretary, with the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776, the only other such proclamation ever issued by British colonials, used as a model. Strongly alluding to Thomas Jefferson's text throughout, the Rhodesians used one phrase verbatim—"a respect for the opinions of mankind"—but no reference was made to the assertion that "all men are created equal", nor to the "consent of the governed", two omissions later stressed by a number of commentators. Attached to the declaration of independence was a copy of the 1961 constitution amended for the circumstances, which became the 1965 constitution. In the eyes of the Smith administration, this document removed Whitehall's remaining authority over Rhodesia and made Rhodesia a de jure independent state.
A higher ratio of body surface area (proportional to heat loss) to body volume (proportional to heat production) A higher proportional surface area of the head A low amount of musculature and the inability to shiver A lack of thermal insulation, e.g., subcutaneous fat and fine body hair (especially in prematurely born children) An inability to move away from cold areas, air currents or heat-draining materials An inability to use additional ways of keeping warm (e.g., drying their skin, putting on clothing, moving into warmer areas, or performing physical exercise) A nervous system that is not fully developed and does not respond quickly and/or properly to cold (e.g., by contracting blood vessels in and just below the skin: vasoconstriction). Heat production in brown fat provides an infant with an alternative means of heat regulation.
=== Early prototypes and barriers to entry: 1920s–1990s === In 1927, Joseph Robinson applied for a patent for an electronic vaporizer to be used with medicinal compounds. The patent was approved in 1930 but the device was never marketed. In 1930, the United States Patent and Trademark Office reported a patent stating, "for holding medicinal compounds which are electrically or otherwise heated to produce vapors for inhalation." In 1934 and 1936, further similar patents were applied for. The earliest e-cigarette can be traced to American Herbert A. Gilbert. In 1963, Gilbert applied for a patent for "a smokeless non-tobacco cigarette" that involved "replacing burning tobacco and paper with heated, moist, flavored air". This device produced flavored steam without nicotine. The patent was granted in 1965. Gilbert's invention was ahead of its time. However, it received little attention and was never commercialized because smoking was still fashionable at that time. Gilbert said in 2013 that today's electric cigarettes follow the basic design set forth in his original patent. The Favor cigarette, introduced in 1986 by public company Advanced Tobacco Products, was another early noncombustible product promoted as an alternative nicotine-based tobacco product. Favor was conceptualized by Phil Ray, one of the founders of Datapoint Corporation and inventors of the microprocessor. Development started in 1979 by Phil Ray and Norman Jacobson.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
I hated authority like hell." From 1964 to 1965, Biko studied at St. Francis College, a Catholic boarding school in Mariannhill, Natal. The college had a liberal political culture, and Biko developed his political consciousness there. He became particularly interested in the replacement of South Africa's white minority government with an administration that represented the country's black majority. Among the anti-colonialist leaders who became Biko's heroes at this time were Algeria's Ahmed Ben Bella and Kenya's Jaramogi Oginga Odinga. He later said that most of the "politicos" in his family were sympathetic to the PAC, which had anti-communist and African racialist ideas. Biko admired what he described as the PAC's "terribly good organisation" and the courage of many of its members, but he remained unconvinced by its racially exclusionary approach, believing that members of all racial groups should unite against the government. In December 1964, he travelled to Zwelitsha for the ulwaluko circumcision ceremony, symbolically marking his transition from boyhood to manhood.
== External links == "Neuromedin U Receptors". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2007-10-25. Neuromedin+U+Receptor at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
== The Sabres years (1958–1964) == The Sabres's popularity in the Central New York region prompted them to record a single ("Seaweed" (written by Ron Lauback) b/w "The McCoy" a Ventures song) which received airplay on WNDR radio in 1962 ("Seaweed" was produced by Joe Raposo at Raposo Studios). The Sabres played all the regional teen dances and even backed up Bobby Vee at The Three Rivers Inn one time for DJ Peter C. Cavenaugh The band changed its name to The Jazzmen in 1963, but split the following year. The British Invasion having rendered their Instrumental sound out of fashion. During this time Ron also graduated from Syracuse University (1964) and took a job with Bristol Laboratories (now known as Bristol-Myers Squibb).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Registered medical products are most often 0.1% nasal drops. Research suppliers ship lyophilized powder, usually in milligram quantities, which is dissolved before use. The active peptide is the same in both cases; presentation and excipients differ.
No. The peptide is synthetic, although it is modelled on a fragment of a naturally occurring hormone. ACTH(4-10) is generated when ACTH is cleaved, but the Pro-Gly-Pro extension is not a known endogenous sequence. It is therefore a designed analogue rather than a natural metabolite.
The label reflects reported effects on attention, memory and recovery after neurological injury in regional clinical reports. Those reports are mostly small and have not been widely replicated outside the region. The classification is descriptive and does not imply a single defined mechanism.
Each freeze-thaw cycle can degrade a fraction of the peptide and promote aggregation. Dividing a stock solution into single-use volumes removes repeated cycling as a variable. It also limits the time a thawed solution spends at room temperature.